Macbeth Analysis Essay Example for Free

Macbeth Analysis Essay I was just walking with Banquo on a cold and windy day to Forres when we come across three witches. They were very old and they all had long curly beards. One of them had a long crooked old finger and she kept on pointing it at me. The witches started talking to me. They all said hail Macbeth hail to thee. Banquo started talking to them and then the witches all said the same word Hail at the same time. I was getting really interested, so I said carry on talking. I wanted to know what they were trying to tell me. I was telling them to speak but they did not and they just vanished away. They told me that I was going to be king. I was sitting in my room and in comes my wife. I said to my wife that I did not want to kill Duncan anymore. Lady Macbeth started telling me that I was a coward, and then she started rushing into the plans about killing Duncan, but I wasnt even sure I wanted to kill him anymore because Duncan was giving me complements lately. She thought I was drunk earlier because I had been so eager to murder Duncan, and now she thought I was afraid of murdering him. The truth is I was scared. She was telling me all the plans I decided to do it then and what she told me to do is show my grief about the king being dead and act innocent . Lady Macbeth told me that when the bell strikes that is when I murder Duncan. when the bell rang I went to the courtyard to murder Duncan. My wife had already drugged the bodyguards and placed daggers on them to make it look like they have done it. Now it was going to be easy for me to do the murder. I had done the murder, then went back to the party and everything was like had not done anything.

Relationship between Translation and Culture

Relationship between Translation and Culture Vocabulary is the most active part of language. It can directly reflect the social changes and cultural developments. In a sense, vocabulary is the mirror of the society and culture, so is the color terms. The understanding and feelings to color terms of Chinese and English People are much alike, which underlies the possibility in cross-cultural communication as well as translatability. When both denotative and connotative meanings of color terms will not lead to misreading, the method of literal translation is a good choice. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and flavor of color terms (Deng, 2001). It can introduce the TL readers the vivid expression in SL so as to let them gain more knowledge about the unique culture in SL country. For example, red light district à §Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¥Ã…’ º. Red light district is a part in a city where many houses of prostitution are located. This expression did not exist in China at first. By literal translation, this expression with its cultural connotation has successfully made its way into Chinese (Wu, 2009). Likewise, some Chinese expressions can also be literally translated into English. For example, green increasing and red decreasing. It is well known to us that is a famous phrase in a Chinese poem > written by Li Qingzhao. It refers to the leaves and flowers seen by the author after she got drunk. It must have been totally strange to English receptors in the past. Due to cultural exchange, the phrase green increasing and red decreasing is becoming more and more familiar to them, and it has been endowed with the same cultural connotation in English as has in Chinese. Zero Translation Transliteration The concept of zero translation is introduced by Professor Qiu Maoru both as a translating strategy for overcoming the unbridgeable distinctions between languages, and as a means of safeguarding the general validity of translatability as the theoretical cornerstone of translation (Wu, 2003). Zero translation means that the TL words or phrases are not employed to translate the SL words or phrases. According to Professor Qiu, ellipsis, transliteration and transference all belong to zero translation (Qiu Maoru, 2001). Transliteration is the way in which, instead of rendering the meaning, only the pronunciation is transferred from SL to TL. As the most fundamental method, this technique is most often used in translating words with absence of designative meanings in TL such as proper nouns, especially names of person, place or geographical features, brand names and corporation names; or some objects, things, terminologies and phenomena peculiar to the source language culture, for instance: à ¥Ã‚ °Ã‚ (persons name) Xiao Hong à ¥Ã‚ ¥Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¿(name of wine) Nv er Hong Although through transliteration, the cultural flavor can be retained and the rendering is concise and easy to remember, such a method may sometimes bring obstacles or barriers to the target readers (Wu, 2009). In such cases, transliteration is utilized and often combined with other compensation methods such as extra-textual gloss and contextual amplification, which is to be discussed in the following section (Wu, 2003). Free Translation Though it is preferable to retain in the TL texts as much original cultural sense as possible, in practice, the method of free translation of original cultural-specific factors is not rare. What is free translation? It may be defined as a supplement which means to reproduce the matter without the manner or the content without the form of the original (Newmark, 1988). And it is widely used in cases when literal translation is awkward enough to impair proper understanding and no alternatives in TL can be found for replacement (Newmark, 2001). For example, in Chinese does not mean a person who is red in skin color. à ¥Ã‚ ¨Ã‹Å" is a quite common expression to Chinese people, however, for English people, it does not arouse any associative meaning if it is literally translated into red mother. Then the method of free translation is suggested. Translating it into matchmaker so as that TL reader can understand what is said in the context. More examples are served as follows: à ©Ã‚ ¢Ã…“ the bloom of youth Red-neck à ¤Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ·Ã‚ ´Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’à §Ã‚ ¾Ã… ½Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ½Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ -à ©Ã†â€™Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬  Ã…“à ¦Ã‚ °Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ From the perspective of cultural translation, the awareness of culture is of great importance for a translator to obtain an ideal rendering in translating practice. A good or ideal translation should accord with the demand and tendency of a particular time and should be understandable and acceptable so that it can enlighten readers to recognize foreign cultural elements. Because of lack of communication, in the past domestication (e.g. Free translation, substitution) was preferred and most of those renderings that employed foreignizing methods (e.g. Literal translation, transliteration) couldnt widely spread. However, because of tendency of cultural integration, foreignizing methods can serve better for the purpose of cultural translation (Guan, 2010). Substitution is an important part of free translation. It refers to a strategy for dealing with objects or events whose usages of color terms are different from those in the target culture. It is the use of one color from the target culture for another from the source culture, both of the colors having the same function (Liu, 2003) There are kinds of situations that need to employ substitution: 1) People often associate certain qualities with certain colors. These qualities often arouse certain reactions or emotions, which are not always the same with different people and the differences fall into two categories: a) Colors having certain associated characteristics in one culture, but not in the other; b) Colors with certain associated qualities in both cultures, but with different qualities. As for the first category, paraphrase will be employed, while as far as the second category is concerned, the technique of substitution is suitable, for example green-eyed à §Ã…“ ¼ (Qiu Maoru, 2001). In Chinese, can be used to express the psychological state of envy or jealousy. In this case, it is improper to translate into red. In English green is often associated with jealousy and envy. Green with envy, green-eyed monsters, and green-eyed all mean being jealous, envious. In English, red eye is a phrase meaning cheap and strong whisky as eyes turn red after drinking such liquor (Gao, 2006). 2) In terms of those with concrete colors, Chinese and English often use different color terms, e.g black tea à ¨Ã…’ ¶; pink eyes à §Ã…“ ¼Ãƒ §-†¦ This is because Chinese and English People tend to adopt different angles of view in observing things and phenomena, and grasping the characteristics of things. In this situation, substitution is apparently an appropriate translating strategy. Conclusion In conclusion, word meaning is different in accordance with various cultural backgrounds. Due to mans social and cultural experiences, same expression may lead to different understandings. Word corresponds in conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, and emotional meaning. The understanding and interpretation of such culture-loaded words must go along with the understanding of the culture involved. Previously, this dissertation analyzes the reasons for similarities and differences of the term RED and illustrates in accordance with perception, natural and social background, and religion. Every cultural phenomenon originates from a certain cultural foundation. Similarities are caused by similar perception and custom. On the other hand, differences are naturally more apparent. Language is involved with the differences of national culture. Therefore, differences between two cultures should be critically considered when translating. And the, this dissertation gives three cultural translation strategies. Firstly, literal translation is considered as the first step. It takes word-for-word translation as its starting point. Literal translation aims at preserving the most possible cultural information of the meaning without changing the linguistic forms of the source text. Secondly, zero translation can be used for overcoming the unbridgeable distinctions between languages. It means that means that TL words or phrases are not conducted to translate SL words or phrases. Thirdly, free translation is an effective way to deal with cultural sense. It is widely used when literal translation is awkward enough to impair proper understanding. In this situation, no TL alternatives can be found for replacement. However, there are some limitations in this paper. Firstly, the colors in the world limitless and there are also many color terms that are used to symbolize them, but cannot compare all of them. The comparison in this paper only focuses on the basic color term RED. Secondly, there are so many expressions with color terms in both Chinese and English that the author cannot write them all, but the examples given in this paper are enough because the purpose of this paper is not only to find out the similarities and differences, the more important point is to understand the similarities and differences between cultures, thus finding out a more appropriate method of rendering the color words.

Oregon Trail :: essays research papers fc

CROSSING THE Great Plains The Oregon Trail was an overland emigrant route in the United States from the Missouri River to the Columbia River country, was the way to travel back in the 1840’s through the 1860’s. In 1843 the "Great Emigration" began and the west would never be the same after the out set of the travelers. The pioneers by wagon train did not, however, follow any single narrow route. In open country the different trains might spread out over a large area, only to converge again for river crossings, mountain passes. In time many alternate routes also developed. They originated at various places on the Missouri, although Independence were favorite starting points, the routes taken along with the wagon trails are the key points in which made it possible to travel west. Those starting from Independence followed the same route as the Santa Fe Trail for some 40 miles, then traveled to the Platte and generally followed that river to the North Platte and t hen the South Platte. Crossing the South Platte, the main trail followed the North Platte to Fort Laramie, then to the present Casper, Wyo. and through the mountains by the South Pass to the Colorado River. The travelers then went to Fort Bridger, from which the Mormon Trail continued to the Great Salt Lake, while the Oregon Trail went northwest across a divide to Fort Hall, on the Snake River. The California Trail branched off to the southwest, but the Oregon Trail continued to Fort Boise. From that point the travelers had to make the hard climb over the Blue Mountains. Once those were crossed, paths diverged somewhat; many went to Fort Walla Walla before proceeding down the south bank of the Columbia River, traversing the Columbia's gorge where it passes through the Cascade Mountains to the Willamette Valley, where the early settlement centered. The end of the trail shifted as settlement spread. The mountain men were chiefly responsible for making the route known, and Thomas Fitzp atrick and James Bridger were renowned as guides. The first genuine emigrant train was that led by John Bidwell in 1841, half of which went to California, the rest proceeding from Fort Hall to Oregon. The first train of emigrants to reach Oregon was that led by Elijah White in 1842. In 1843 occurred the "Great Emigration" of more than 900 persons and more than 1,000 head of stock.

HUMANITY AND NATURE: THE PERIOD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Essay

HUMANITY AND NATURE: THE PERIOD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Human beings and their reaction and response to world events has changed and evolved throughout history. The time period of the Industrial Revolution was no exception. Humans ´ responses to the consequences of the Industrial Revolution accurately depicted humanity and the stage of its evolution at that particular point in history. Humanity spoke out against the injustices they encountered as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Eventually, social theories emerged, that clearly depicted the power of the people to lead the world in the direction they desired. The Industrial Revolution was also a time of evolution in regards to the relationship of humanity with nature. Humanity proved that it no longer needed to depend on nature for its survival. Before the first Industrial Revolution, Englands economy was based on its cottage industry. The cottage industry consisted of workers purchasing raw materials from merchants and using these materials to produce goods at their own home. The problem with this system was that productivity was extremely low, which made costs higher. This caused an increase in the productsà ­ prices, so goods became exclusive to wealthy citizens. By the 1750à ­s the Industrial Revolution had begun. The Industrial Revolution was directly related to the rise of the factory system.(1) The incentive to invest in factories came from the fact that they were extremely efficient, so there was a great potential for increased profit. Men, women, and children were employed to keep the machines running and the factory system was established to provide the greatest efficiency of material and labor, at the lest expensive cost.(2) Factories provided the oppo... ...ch Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" in Perry M. Rogers Third Edition, Aspects of Western Civilization: Problesm and Sources in History (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997), 149. 16. Pope Leo XIII, "Rerum Novarum (1891)" in Perry M. Rogers Third Edition, Aspects of Western Civilization: Probles and Sources in History (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997), 158. Additional Source - Reeve, Robin. The Industrial Revolution 1750 - 1850. London: University of London Press LTD, 1971. This book is a great source for the study of humans and nature during the period of the Industrial Revolution. In this book the social impact of the Industrial Revolution is approached through an analysis of the labour force in 1851 and then leads into an assessment of family life and living standards during this controversial period. HUMANITY AND NATURE: THE PERIOD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Essay HUMANITY AND NATURE: THE PERIOD OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Human beings and their reaction and response to world events has changed and evolved throughout history. The time period of the Industrial Revolution was no exception. Humans ´ responses to the consequences of the Industrial Revolution accurately depicted humanity and the stage of its evolution at that particular point in history. Humanity spoke out against the injustices they encountered as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Eventually, social theories emerged, that clearly depicted the power of the people to lead the world in the direction they desired. The Industrial Revolution was also a time of evolution in regards to the relationship of humanity with nature. Humanity proved that it no longer needed to depend on nature for its survival. Before the first Industrial Revolution, Englands economy was based on its cottage industry. The cottage industry consisted of workers purchasing raw materials from merchants and using these materials to produce goods at their own home. The problem with this system was that productivity was extremely low, which made costs higher. This caused an increase in the productsà ­ prices, so goods became exclusive to wealthy citizens. By the 1750à ­s the Industrial Revolution had begun. The Industrial Revolution was directly related to the rise of the factory system.(1) The incentive to invest in factories came from the fact that they were extremely efficient, so there was a great potential for increased profit. Men, women, and children were employed to keep the machines running and the factory system was established to provide the greatest efficiency of material and labor, at the lest expensive cost.(2) Factories provided the oppo... ...ch Engels, "The Communist Manifesto" in Perry M. Rogers Third Edition, Aspects of Western Civilization: Problesm and Sources in History (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997), 149. 16. Pope Leo XIII, "Rerum Novarum (1891)" in Perry M. Rogers Third Edition, Aspects of Western Civilization: Probles and Sources in History (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997), 158. Additional Source - Reeve, Robin. The Industrial Revolution 1750 - 1850. London: University of London Press LTD, 1971. This book is a great source for the study of humans and nature during the period of the Industrial Revolution. In this book the social impact of the Industrial Revolution is approached through an analysis of the labour force in 1851 and then leads into an assessment of family life and living standards during this controversial period.

Human Nature :: essays research papers

Human nature Grade: B Language: English System: Country: Taiwan Our life is full of problems. Reasoning is a usual way to response to problems which we concern about. We reason in response to everyday problems. For instance, asked by friends to go out dinner at a time when we have planned something else, we must decide which one is more important for us at that moment of time, and whether to decline or to adjust our schedule. Reasoning appropriate to problems like this has often been called practical. Practical reasons might be said to be reasons for acting, and it is in some sense point toward action. Practical reasoning has been much discussed by philosophers, and it is catalogued under Moral Philosophy. For Aristotle’s moral philosophy, as it appears in his document now called the Nicomachean ethics, reflects his teleological (goal-oriented) metaphyics. In the Nicomachean ethics, where Aristotle considers a science of doing, and acting in certain way to seek rational ends. The notion of Goal, or Purpose, is the principal one in his moral theory. Aristotle noted that every act is performed for some purpose, which he defined as the "good" of that act, the end at which the activity aims. We perform an act because we find its purpose to be worthwhile. Either the totality of our acts is an infinitely circular series: Every morning we get up in order to eat breakfast, we eat breakfast in order to go to work, we got to work in order to get money, we get money so we can buy food in order to be able to eat breakfast, etc., etc., etc., in which case life would be a pretty meaningless endeavor because this is just bunch of repeated and vain activities practicing if without a purpose. Or there is some ultimate good toward which the purpose of all acts are directed. If there is such a good, we should try to come to know it so that we can adjust all our acts toward it in order to avoid that saddest of all tragedies – the wasted and vain life According to Aristotle, there is general verbal agreement that the end toward which all human acts are directed is happiness; therefore, happiness is the human good since we seek happiness for its own sake, not for the sake of something else. In a sense, realizing the end of attaining happiness is an activity of making, and it’s the activity aims to make a certain kind of man, living in a certain kind of society. Happiness might be explained as the

Entreprenurial Finance Essay

MINI CASE 2 ANSWER SHEET GROUP #2 R.K. Maroon is a seed-stage web-oriented entertainment company with important intellectual property. RKM’s founders, all technology experts in the relevant area, are anticipating a quick leap to dot-com fortune and believe that their unique intellectual property will allow them to achieve a subsequent (year 3) $100,000,000 venture value with a one-time initial $2,000,000 in venture financing. In contrast, similar dot-commers in their niche are currently seeking multistage financing amounting to $10,000,000 to achieve comparable results. The founders have organized with 1,000,000 shares and are willing to â€Å"grant† venture investors a 100% return on their business plan projections. A. What percent of ownership must be sold to â€Å"grant† the 100% three-year return? Value to Achieve in 3 years Initial Financing Time in years Rate Future value Percent Owned by Investors 100,000,000.00 2,000,000.00 3 100% 16,000,000.00 16.00% B. What is the resulting configuration of share ownership (starting from the 1,000,000 founders’ shares? Shares Of founders Percentage of the investors Percentage left Total of Shares 1,000,000.00 16.00% 84.00% 1190476.19 Shares to be Issued to Investors 190476.1905 C. Suppose the venture investors don’t buy the business plan predictions and want to price the deal assuming a second round in year 2 of $8,000,000 with a 40% return. What changes? Second Round Money Second Round E. Return Money + Retunr Second Round Second Round Investor Ownership Founder % of ownership Total Shares Out Second Round Shares First Round Shares Founders Shares 8,000,000.00 40% 11,200,000.00 11.20% 72.80% 1,373,626.37 153,846.15 219,780.22 1,000,000.00 D. Suppose the venture investors agree with the founders’ assessment, price the deal accordingly (as in Part B) and turn out to be wrong (an additional $8,000,000 at 40% must be injected for the final year). 1. What is the impact on the founders’ and round one investors’ final ownership assuming the second round is funded by outsiders? % Owned by first rond and Founder Total Shares At Exit Second Round Final Ownership First Round Final Shares Owned Founder Final Shares Owned 88.80% 1,340,626.34 11.20% 14.21% 74.59% 1. Compare these to your results for Part C. Compared to the results in part C, first round of investors will keep more percent of the company IN the results of C than in the part D 2. Who bears the dilution from an anticipated round? Founders bear the cost of all rounds anticipated by the first round of investors 3. Who bears the dilution from an unanticipated round? Fist round of investors fail to anticipate a second round. This might cause this first round investors will bear some of the dilution E. Suppose that the deal is priced assuming the second round (as in Part C) and it turns out to be unnecessary. Comment on the final ownership percentages at exit (year 3). What do you conclude about the impact of anticipated but unrealized subsequent financing rounds? At the beginning, the first round investors got a share allocations that protected them from second round dilution, while the founders beared the  hedging of the first round investors. In the other hand, if the second round never arrives, first round investors will benefit a lot because they didn`t bear the anticipated dilution. Meanwhile, founders and first round would not have an incentive to have a bonus arrangement unless this help them to avoid a second round.

The Role of Youth in Indian Politics Essay

On the roads of Indian democracy, we have travelled for about 63 years now and shall continue the journey for years to come in the same rickety ancient grubby vehicle of ours that has driven us for so long. The list of travellers is an assemblage of young dazzling men and women. The blatant contrast between them arouses debates. It makes us ponder over the role of youth in Indian politics. There have been certain qualities constantly attributed to youth such as passion, aggression, and impetuousness, which have been viewed in both negative and positive lights.. Many argue that â€Å"youth† is an inexperienced and immature stage of life and are in disagreement as to whether the qualities of youth can be beneficial for politics, or detrimental. Speculation has also led to debates about whether young adult brains are biologically ready to make tough decisions. At the same time, for the establishment of â€Å"Rule by the People† in the world’s largest democracy as we proudly declare ourselves to be, it is important to understand who these â€Å"people† really are. According to ‘Indian Youth Portal’ 41.05% of the total population of the nation comes under the category of youth. Hence, it is obvious that participation of youth in the functioning of our country’s political practices is integral. The methods of working need to be revolutionised at a grass root level which can be attained by giving them the power to create a world in which they wish to live. Their innovative way of assessment and unacceptability towards injustice and unfair practices, makes them the ideal class of people to work for the people and strengthen their representation. After having addressed the question of the importance of youth contribution, we need to shift our focus on the practicality of this idea. A simple survey* reveals an interesting result. 87% of the university students surveyed for the same, believe that the†¦ Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States of America, aptly defined democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people. Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States of America, aptly defined democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people. This definition clearly underlines the basic tenet that, in this- form of government, people are supreme. The ultimate power is in their hands and they exercise it in the form of electing their representatives at the time of elections. In modern times this type of democracy, which is representative in nature, is most suitable. The other type, the direct democracy in which the people themselves enact and implement laws and run the administration, is now not feasible as countries are large and their populations huge. In a country like Switzerland, which has comparatively small population, direct democracy can still be found. India is the biggest democracy in the world, with a population of over one billion. India, a union of states, is a sovereign socialist, secular, democratic, republic, with a parliamentary system of government. The republic is governed in terms of the Constitution, which was adopted on 26 November, 1949 and came into force on 26 January, 1950. During the past fifty-three years there have been regular elections to the Parliament and state legislatures. This reflects the maturity and wisdom of the Indian electorate, in whom the ultimate power and sovereignty rests. With the passage of time, Indian voters have become more assertive and active as regards their participation in the process of democracy. The turnout of Indian voters has significantly increased during the past elections. It was about 52% only during the Lok Sabha elections of 1952 which increased to 64% during the ninth Lok Sabha elections held in 1989. Similarly during the last elections for Parliament, the voter’s t urnout has been quite encouraging. This phenomenon†¦ No institution including the Election Commission of India (ECI) and no personality or office in a democracy can be beyond public criticism and  debate. There have been occasions in the past when political parties have vehemently disagreed with the ECI’s decisions and found fault with its directives. Some of them have merely voiced their dismay, while others have accused the poll panel of lacking in neutrality and being influenced by the ruling party of the day. However, it is not often that a major political party holds a protest against the ECI and openly accuses the Chief Election Commissioner of timidity. By organising such protests, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has set a precedent of sorts. The party’s grievance is that the Returning Officer for the Varanasi constituency, where its prime ministerial aspirant Narendra Modi is a candidate, denied him permission to hold a rally in Varanasi city, citing security reasons. There may be some substance in its grievance as other leaders seem to have had no problem in addressing rallies at the same venue. However, it seems the party is protesting too much, as this one instance is not enough to conclude that the entire machinery of the Election Commission is acting with bias against the BJP and Mr. Modi. With just one round of polling left in the multi-phase exercise, Mr. Modi has criss-crossed the length and breadth of the country including Uttar Pradesh and addressed rallies without any such problem. The words of its senior leader Arun Jaitley, that â€Å"timid men can dwarf high office† and â€Å"if you can’t provide security, don’t hold polls in the country†, may not be quite fair, considering the impressive way in which the Commission has held the mammoth democratic exercise over the last two decades without many complaints of rigging. Voter turnout has improved considerably over the years; people living in remote areas and from communities prevented in the past from voting by feudal overlords are exercising their franchise without fear. Carping at the referee for one unpalatable decision, even if it involves the party’s iconic contestant, may not be justified. One of the principal complaints of the BJP against the United Progressive Alliance regime was that it undermined institutions such as the CAG by its continuous attacks. The BJP’s outburst against the ECI would seem no different in its tenor. Parties should desist from unfair attacks that might put undue pressure on election officials. It is equally plausible that the BJP was merely being opportunistic and seeking last-minute electoral gains by playing the victim. For its part, the Election Commission should be more alert, closely monitor field-level decisions and deal with complaints  against its officials with a greater sense of urgency. One of the most encouraging aspects of the 2014 Lok Sabha elections has been the significantly high voter turnout in areas affected by Left-wing extremism. Bastar in Chhattisgarh, that remains severely affected by Maoist insurgency, saw a voter turnout of almost 60 per cent as opposed to 47.33 per cent in 2009. Here, as well as in other areas, the Maoists had called for a total boycott of elections. But in most areas, in spite of the violence perpetrated by the Maoist rebels, people have come out in large numbers to cast their vote. In Gadchiroli constituency in Maharashtra, that is a part of the Maoists’ foremost guerrilla zone, the Dandakaranya Special Zone Committee, over 68 per cent votes were cast as opposed to 65.21 per cent in the 2009 elections. Munger and Jamui in Bihar also saw a 10 per cent increase in voter turnout. The only affected area where the turnout was low is Orissa’s Malkangiri that recorded a voting percentage of 48 per cent. One reason attributed to the higher turnout is the enthusiasm of first-time voters who came out in large numbers. Also, in many Maoist-affected areas, people are tired of the long cycle of violence, and want things to change. The voter turnout in Bastar has left the Maoists worried. After the elections in Bastar on April 10, they have held meetings at several places with Adivasis to understand what prompted this high turnout. Even in the formerly Maoist-hit areas in West Bengal, that went to the polls on May 7, the turnout has been exceptional. West Medinipur, Purulia and Bankura registered a turnout of 81.41, 78.75, 80.55 per cent respectively till 5 p.m. In Jhargram, it was almost 88 per cent. The challenge for the new government would be to focus on the development of the red corridor, especially when people there have expressed their faith in democracy. One major reason why the Maoists were able to entrench themselves in these regions was that the Indian state had completely forsaken its people. The void left by the state was just filled by Maoists. The onus is on whosoever forms the next government in New Delhi to change the equation. In many areas, there is sympathy among the Adivasis for Maoists. Security operations in these areas may have put Maoists on the back foot, but this can only be a temporary trend. In the absence of a real developmental intervention by the new government, there will be no ebb in violence in Bastar and other  Maoist-affected areas. One of the biggest challenges before the new government will be to instil a sense of security among the people. That will only happen if the people have confidence in the government — after which they will reject Maoism. When a law replacing an invalid executive order retains the same classification that was held to violate the constitutional norm of equality, it has to be struck down. It was only natural that the Supreme Court should declare unconstitutional Section 6-A of the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act that requires prior approval of the Centre before the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) can begin an inquiry or investigation against officers of the Union Government in the rank of Joint Secretary and above for the same reason that it invalidated the government’s ‘Single Directive’ in Vineet Narain (1997). The section was introduced by Parliament in 2003 to restore the ‘Single Directive’, a set of instructions to the CBI on the modalities of holding an enquiry. In yet another verdict that insulates the investigating agency from dependence on government approval at every stage, the Court has seen through the distinction made between officers based on t heir rank alone. Apart from there being no reasonable basis to treat corrupt public servants of a certain rank differently from those below them, the Court has given cogent and practical reasons too: that Section 6-A is destructive of the objective of the Prevention of Corruption Act as it blocks the truth from surfacing, protects those who commit crimes thwarts independent investigation and provides a forewarning to corrupt officers as soon as allegations are made against them. The government argued in vain, as it did in defence of the Single Directive earlier, that officers of the rank of Joint Secretary and above are â€Å"decision-making† officials who required protection against malicious or vexatious allegations. In the absence of such protection, it was contended, officials may tend to make no decisions, or limit themselves to ‘safe decisions’. However, as the amicus curiaepointed out to the Court, there was no known instance of harassment of officials between 1997 and 2003, the period in which no such prior approval was required. Further, other provisions requiring sanction from the competent authority before commencing prosecution remain intact. The real mischief in the provision, the Court has noted, is that the very group of  officers who may be the target of the inquiry get to decide whether the probe should be allowed or not. It has ruled that where it could be inferred that a corrupt act had taken place, but there is no direct evidence, the ‘expertise’ to decide whether to begin a probe should remain with the CBI, and not with the government. The verdict thus strengthens the agency in a way the legislature has failed to do over the years. It has restored what it calls the ‘signature tune’ of Vineet Narain: â€Å"however high you may be, the law is above you.† Essays on the organization, functions and Role of the Election commission in India A good electoral system is, therefore, the bed rock of genuine representative government. The architects of the Indian constitution attached the highest significance to arzon-dependent electoral machinery for the conduct of elections. For this it was necessary that an independent election commission with its vast paraphernalia should be set-up in country such a commission could ensure fair and free elections of the representatives of the pie at all levels. Articles 324, Dr. Ambedkar contended, â€Å"proposed centralise the election machinery in hands of a single commission, be assisted by regional commissioners working under the supervision direction control of the election commission and not and under e control of the state government as envisaged earlier.† Composition of the Election Commission: Of the four pillars of the Indian constitution, the Election commission is one, the other three being the Supreme Court, the public service commission and the comptroller and Auditor General of India. On the Election commission depends the integrity of election, which truly is the oxygen of democracy. Thus viewed, its independence d impartiality assume critical importance to the country’s entire political system. To ensure free and fair and impartial elections, the constitution establishes the Election Commission, a body autonomous in character and free from political orenecutive influence. The commission is an All India body having jurisdiction over, elections to parliament, fate Legislatures, offices of the president and vice-president. The Election Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner, and  such number of Election Commissioners if any as the president may fix from time to time. The Chief Election Commissioner stands at the apex of the hierarchy of the El ection Commission of India. All these commissioners are appointed by the president subject to the provisions of any law enacted by parliament for the purpose. The Chief Election Commissioner acts as the chairman of the Election Commission .in case any other Election Commissioner besides him is appointed. The tenure of the Chief Election Commissioner is independent of the executive discretion, for he cannot be removed from his of face except in the like manner and on the like grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court. The conditions of service of the Chief Election Commissioner cannot be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment. The president also promulgated an ordinance amending the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioner Act providing for unanimous transaction of business and decisions but in case of differences of opinion among the three members the matter shall be decided â€Å"according to the opinion of the majority.† The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioner Act, 1991 as existed before the issue of ordinance was weighed in favour of the chief election commissioner on decision ma king in case of differences among the members of the commission. The constitution provides for a single member or multi ­member Election Commission. Where there is more than one I members the CEC acts as its chairman. The committee on Electoral Reforms has made certain recommendations with regard to the items and conditions of service Of the Chief Election Commissioner and the other Election Commissioners. After having studied those recommendations the chief Election Commissioners of India conditions of service rules 1972 were amended with introspective, effect from 1st January 1986. The Chief Election Commissioner of India will not be entitled to the salary and other facilities, like rent free accommodation, equivalery to that of a judge of Supreme Court. The term of his office has also been extended upto 6 years, from the date he assumes office or till the day he at his the age of 65 years. To assist the Chief Election Commissioner in the performance of his onerous duties there exists a large paraphernalia of the officers and the staff subordinate to him. Among them is the regional commissioner. Deputy Election Commissioner, se cretary, Under secretary, Research officers etc. In the place of the regional commissioners a new post of Deputy Election Commissioner was  created in the Election Commission for the first time in 1956. Since he Deputy Chief Election Commissioner is appointed by the president and is usually sent on deputation, he can be recalled by the central govt, at the request of the chief Election Commissioner at any time. At the state or the union territory level there is the Chief Election officer as the kingpin in the Electoral machinery. He is nominated by the Election Commission in consultation with the state Govt. He is usually a senior executive or judicial officer of the state Government. He is assisted by the joint deputy or assistant Chief Election officers as well as the rest of the staff appointed by him in consultation with the state government. He may be a whole time or part time officer. At the district level the electoral duties are discharged by the District officer or the Executive Officer in addition to his normal administ rative routine. The responsibility for the preparation and revision of electoral rolls is rested in an officer called the Electoral Registration officer. He may have under him Assistant Electoral Registration officers. The election in every constituency is supervised by an officer known as the returning officer nominated by the Election commission in consultation with the govt, of the state. The same officer can be nominated as returning officer r more than one constituencies. He is assisted by one or more assistant Returning Officers so designated by the Election Commission. The staff consisting of presiding and polling officers, for the actual conduct of the poll is appointed by the District Election officer. The District Election Officer may appoint a presiding officer for each polling station and such polling officers are necessary. The presiding officer keeps order of the pooling station and ensures the fair conduct of the poll. Functions and powers of the Election Commission: The Election Commission of India has to perform multifarious duties assigned to it under the constitution. Some of the principal functions of the commission are: (1) Demarcation of constituencies: To facilitate the process of elections a country has to be divided into several constituencies. The task of delimiting constituencies is generally performed by a delimitation commission. But the power to delimit parliamentary and assembly constituencies for the first general elections in  1951 was conferred on the president. The Election Commission distributed the seats district wise in each one of the states and directed the Chief Electoral Officers to prepare proposals for the physical demarcation of constituencies according to the prescribed criteria. The procedure adopted in the delimitation of constituencies in 1951 led to a virtual power in the hands of the ruling party to decide the contours of the constituencies as it suited its designs. The association of parliamentary Advisory committees with the delimitation commission gave top priority to political consideration. The Election Commission strongly pleaded for taking away this power from the parliament. The Delimitation co mmission was to consist of three members, two of whom were to be nominated by the president from serving or retired judges of the Supreme Court or High Courts while the Chief Election Commissioner was to be an ex-officio member. (2) Electoral Rolls: The second important but tedious function of the Election Commission is to prepare for identification the upto date list of all the persons who are entitled for voting at the poll. (3) Recognition of political parties and Allotment of Symbols: A new part IV A has been added to the representation of the people Amendment Act, 1951 on registration of political parties. Section 29 A now inserted provides for registration with the commission, of associations and bodies of individual citizens of India as political parties for purpose of this Act. This provision came into force from June 15, 1989. A recognised political party has been classified either as a National Party or a state party under paragraph 7 of the Elections symbol order 1968. Another important function of the Election Commissioner is to allot symbols to the political parties and the candidates, and also to accord recognition to the political parties. The commission has specified certain symbols as reserved and others as free. The reserved symbols are only available for candidates sponsored by the political parties and the free symbols are equally available to other candidates. The Election Commission has power to adjudicate upon disputes with regard to recognition of political parties and rival claims to a particular symbol for the purposes of elections. (4) Scrutiny of the Nomination Papers: Another function of the Election Commission is to examine the nomination papers of the candidates. These papers are accepted if found in order, but rejected otherwise. This duty is performed by the returning officer who notifies to all the contesting candidates the date, time and place for the formal scrutiny of nomination papers. The Returning officer summarily but judicially examines all the nomination papers and decides the objection raised. He is also to see whether the requisite requirements of security deposit, election symbol, election agent etc. have also been fulfilled. He is empowered to reject the nomination papers either by upholding the objection raised by a rival candidate or on his own motion or any of the following (a) that the candidate either is not qualified or is disqualified to fill the seat under any of the relevant constitutional provisions viz. Articles 84. 102, 173 and 191 (b) that the provision of sections 33 and 34 of the representation of the peopleâ€℠¢s Act 1951 have not been complied with and (c) that the signature of the candidate or the proposer on the nomination or papers is not genuine. (5) The conduct of the poll: Another stupendous task that the Election Commission has to undertake is the conduct of the poll throughout the whole of India. In a parliamentary constituency, the returning officer is to make suitable arrangements for conducting the poll with the prior approval of the Election Commission. The commission can order a Ripoll for the whole constituency under compulsion of circumstances. Articles 324 confers on the Election Commission necessary powers to conduct the elections including the power to countermand the poll in a constituency and ordering a fresh poll there in because of hooliganism and break down of law and order at the line of polling or counting of votes. (6) Election Expenses: Another most controversial function that the election commission has perform is no scrutinize the accounts of election expenses submitted by contestants in elections. In India every contesting candidate is required to maintain and file the accounts of his election expenses. Within a prescribed period after publication of the result of his election within 10 days from the last date of filing the returns the Returning Officer submits to the Election Commission a list of all the candidates and their agents together with their  returns as also his observation in respect of candidates who have failed to lodge returns in the specified time and a accordance with the procedure prescribed by law. The commission scrutinizes the accounts and dudes whether the returns are in proper form and whether they have been lodged in time. In case of default it notifies the candidates or their agents of there disqualification by publishing these in the official Gazette. Role of the Election Commission: Election is the contrivance through which a modern state creates amongst its citizens a sense of involvement and participation in public affairs. It is through popular elections that the authority of a govt, is clouted with legitimacy and peaceful and orderly transfer of authority to new leaders is ensured. For this it was necessary than an independent Election Commission with its vast paraphernalia should be set up in the country. Such a commission would ensure fair and free election of the representatives of the people at all levels. According to L.K. Advani, â€Å"The Election Commission occupies a pivotal place in the scheme of the Indian constitution. During recent years it has willingly or unwillingly abdicated its independent Supra governmental authority and accepted for itself the role of a mere official department charged with the conduct of elections.† The relations between CES and the central and state Governments are not cordial. The confrontation and the ensuing e mbarrassment for the Governments as a result of the ruling given by Chief Election Commissioner J.N. Seshan have only been increasing. With a critical evaluation of the working of the Election Commission of India so far as we can now infer that: Firstly, the working of the Elections Commission of India during the last four decades has shown that the Election Commission worked independently and impartially, as well as efficiently. Secondly, the Election Commission has fulfilled all the constitutional obligations, and has never tried to go beyond or over step the limits of the constitution. It always worked within the frame work of the constitution. Thirdly, when the Election Commission conducted the first General Election in 1951-52 the electorate were just 17 million but the present strength of the electorate is about 50 crores. The commission, has however been able to cope with its ever mounting responsibilities. It has the capacity to meet new challenges and faced the situation boldly. Fourthly, although the faith  of the people in democracy, its institutions and political parties has eroded but their faith in the Election Commission has all the more strengthened or fortified. According to the Election Commission, the very fact that in almost all states the ruling parties have suffer setbacks shows that the elections have been free and fair. It has given the lie to the wide spread belief that the party in power will use official machinery and influence the voters in its favour. Essays on the doctrine of â€Å"Judicial Review† under the Indian constitution The power of Judiciary to review and determine validity of a law or an order may be described as the power of â€Å"Judicial Review.† It means that the constitution is the Supreme law of the land and any law in consistent there with is void. The term refers to â€Å"the power of a court to inquire whether a law executive order or other official action conflicts with the written constitution and if the court concludes that it does, to declare it unconstitutional and void.† Judicial Review has two prime functions: (1) Legitimizing government action; and (2) to protect the constitution against any undue encroachment by the government. The most distinctive feature of the work of United States Supreme Court is its power of judicial review. As guardian of the constitution, the Supreme Court has to review the laws and executive orders to ensure that they do not violate the constitution of the country and the valid laws passed by the congress. The power of judicial review was first acquired by the Supreme Court in Marbury vs. Madison case. 1803. The constitution of India, in this respect, is more a kin to the U.S. Constitution than the British. In Britain, the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy still holds goods. No court of law there can declare a parliamentary enactment invalid. On the contrary every court is constrained to enforce every provision† of the law of parliament. Under the constitution of India parliament is not Supreme. Its powers are limited in the two ways. First, there is the division of powers between the union and the states. Parliament is competent to pass laws only with respect to those subjects which are guaranteed to the citizens against every form of legislative encroachment. Being the guardian Fundamental Rights and the  arbiter of-constitutional conflicts between the union and the states with respect to the division of powers between them, the Supreme Court stands in a unique position where from it is competent to exercise the power of reviewing legislative enactments both of parliament and the state legislatures. This is what makes the court a powerful instrument of judicial review under the constitution. As Dr. M.P. Jain has rightly observed: â€Å"The doctrine of judicial review is thus firmly rooted in India, and has the explicit sanction of the constitution.† In the framework of a constitution which guarantees individual Fundamental Rights, divides power between the union and the states and clearly defines and delimits the powers and functions of every organ of the stat^ including the parliament, judiciary plays a very important role under their powers of judicial review. The power of judicial review of legislation is given to the judiciary both by the political theory and text of the constitution. There are several specific provisions in the Indian constitution, judicial review of legislation such as Act 13, 32, 131-136, 143, 226, 145, 246, 251, 254 and 372. Article 372 (1) establishes the judicial review of the pre-constitutional legislation similarly. Article 13 specifically declares that any law which contravenes any of the provision of the part of Fundamental Rights shall be void. Even our Supreme Court has observed, even without the specific provisions in Article 13. The court would have the power to declare any enactment which transgresses a Fundamental Right as invalid. The Supreme and high courts are constituted the protector and guarantor of Fundamental Rights under Articles 32 and 226. Articles 251 and 254 say that in case of in consistent if between union and state laws, the state law shall be void. The basic function of the courts is to adjudicate disputed between individuals and the state, between the states and the union and while so adjudicating, the courts may be required to interpret the provisions of the constitution and the laws, and the interpretation given by the Supreme Court becomes the law honoured by all courts of the land. There is no appeal against the judgement of the Supreme Court. In Shankari Prasad vs. Union of India (1951) the first Amendment Act of 1951 was challenged before the Supreme Court on the ground that the said Act abridged the right to property and that it could not be done as there was a restriction on the amendment of Fundamental Rights under Article 13 (2). The Supreme Court rejected the contention and unanimously  held. â€Å"The terms of Article 368 are perfectly general and empower parliament to amend the constitution without any exception whatever. In the context of Article 13 law must be taken to mean rules or regulations made in exercise of ordinary legislative power and amendments to the constitution made in exercise of constituent power, with the result that Article 13 (2) does not affect amendments made under Article 368.† In Sajan Singh’s case (1964), the corupetence of parliament to enact 17th amendment was challenged before the constitution. Bench compris ing of five judges on the ground that it violated the Fundamental Rights under Article 31 (A). Supreme court reiterated its earlier stand taken in Shankari sad’s case and held, â€Å"when article 368 confers on parliament the right to amend the constitution the power in question can be exercised over all the provisions of the constitution, it would be unreason about to hold that the word law’ in article 13 (2) takes in amendment Acts passed under article 368. Thus, until 1967 the Supreme Court held that the Amendment Acts were not ordinary laws, and could not be struck down by the application of article 13 (2). The historic case of Golak Nath vs. The state of Punjab (1967) was heard by a special bench of 11 judges as the validity of three constitutional amendments (1st, 4th and 17th) was challenged. The Supreme Court by a majority of 6 to 5 reversed its earlier decision and declared that parliament under article 368 has no power to take away or abridge the Fundamental Rights contained in chapter II of the constitution the court observed. (1) Article 368 only provides a procedure to be followed regarding amendment of the constitution. (2) Article 368 does not contain the actual power to amend the constitution. (3) The power to amend the constitution is derived from Article 245, 246 and 248 and entry 97 of the union list. (4) The expression ‘law’ as defined in Article 13 (3) includes not only the law made by the parliament in exercise of its ordinary legislative power but also an amendment of the constitution made in exercise of its constitution power. (5) The amendment of the constitution being a law within the meaning of Article 13 (3) would be void under Article 13 (2) of it takes away or abridges the rights conferred by part III of the constitution. (6) The First Amendment Act 1951, the fourth Amendment Act 1955 and the seventeenth Amendment Act. 1964 abridge the scope of Fundamental Rights and, therefore, void under Article 13 (2) of the constitution. (7) Parliament will have no power from the days of the  decision to amend any of the provisions of part III of the constitution so as to take away or abridge the Fundamental Rights enshrined there in. The constitutional validity of the 14th, 25th, and 29th Amendments was challenged in the Fundamental Rights case. The Govt. of India claimed that it had the right as a matter of law to change or destroy the entire fabric of the constitution through the instrumentality of parliament’s amending power. In Minerva Mills case (1980) the Supreme Court by A majority decision has trunk down section 4 of the 42nd Amendment Act which gave preponderance to the Directive Principles over Articles 24, 19 and 31 of part III of the constitution, on the ground that part III and part IV of the constitution are equally important and absolute primacy of one over the other is not permissible as that would disturb the harmony of the constitution. The Supreme Court was convinced that anything that destroys the balance between the two part will ipsoTacto destroy an essential element of the basic structure of our constitution. Judicial Review of Legislative Enactment and ordinances: One of the first major case A.K. Gopalan Vs. State of Madras. 1951 that came up before the Supreme Court in which the preventive Intention Act, 1950 was challenged as invalid. The court by a unanimous decision declared section 14 of the Act invalid and thus manifested its competence to declare void any parliamentary enactment repugnant to the provisions of the constitution. In Champakan Dorairajan’s case, the Supreme Court held that the order of the state government fixing proportionate scales, for different communities for admission to medical colleges was unconstitutional. The presidential order de-recognising privy purses was also challenged in the Supreme Court which declared the order as unconstitutional and void. Between 1950-1980 parliament passed as many as 1977 Acts and out of them, the Supreme Court invalidate laws passed on 22 occasions. Principles of Judicial Review: Justice VS Deshpande in his book propounded a thesis that Judicial Review of legislation in India should rest merely on Article 245 (1) and not on Article 13. According to him, Article 245 (1) interpreted broadly would ensure the supremacy of the constitution over all kinds of laws. Thus, a law to be valid must conform with the constitutional forms. The grave  responsibility of deciding upon the validity of laws, is laid up on the judges of the Supreme Court. If a statue isn’t within the scope of legislative authority or it offends some constitutional restriction or prohibition, that statue is unconstitutional and hence invalid. The Statue is not held unconstitutional by the court in a light vein. Both the ‘felt necessities of the time’ and ‘constitutional fundamentals’ are balanced by the court. Accordingly, the Supreme Court has evolved certain canons, making and norms. H.M. Leervai has enumerated following rules in this regard. (1) There is a presumption in favour of constitutionality, and a law will not be declared unconstitutional unless the case is so clear as to be free from doubt; and the on us to prove that it is unconstitutional lies upon the person who challenges it. (2) Where the validity of a statue is questioned and there are two interpretations, one of which would make the law valid, and the other void, the former must be preferred and the validity of the law upheld. (3) The court will not decide constitutional questions of a case is capable of being decided on other grounds. (4) The court will not decide a larger constitutional question than is required by the case before it. (5) The court will not hear an objection as to the constitutionality of a law by a person whose rights are not affected by it. (6) Ordinarily, courts should not pronounce on the validity of an Act or part of an Act, which has not been brought into force, because till then the question of validity would be merely academic. Indian judiciary has been able to overcome the restrictions that were put on it by the 42nd amendment, with the help of the 43rd and 44th amendments. Now the redeeming quality of Indian judiciary is that no future governments could did its wings or dilute its right of Judicial Review. In fact, now the ‘Judicial Review’ is considered to be the basic feature of out constitution.